Irony is one of those literary devices that you feel before you know how to talk about it. Irony is the difference between what you expect and what happens. But what does that mean and can you learn how to identify irony? Let's learn about irony today. 

A high school English teacher was lecturing about double negatives. “If I write, ‘I don’t have no money,’ that means I have money. As in mathematics, two negatives create a positive, but two positives never create a negative.”

From the back of the room came a voice, “Yeah, right.”

In the above example, not only does the speaker prove the teacher wrong, but they do it in a way that makes the reader (or listener) smile. It’s humorous and subverts expectations; that makes it ironic. 

We often recognize irony in speech through vocalics (tone, pitch, rhythm, pacing, etc.), i.e., there is a vocal quality that we identify as ironic. But in written text, we forego hearing a voice in favor of having the text in a fixed form.

So, how do we identify irony in literature?

Definition: What is irony in literature?

Let’s begin by defining the literary device irony.

According to Merriam-Webster, there are multiple definitions of irony. Irony can be

1. an utterance that expresses something other than or the opposite of the literal or expected meaning. The student in our opening example uses this kind of irony;
2. the incongruity between what we expect and what actually happens as the result of a sequence of events;
3. a device in literature whereby the audience perceives the incongruity between a situation and the accompanying words and actions, but the characters do not;
4. an argumentation technique in which a person asks seemingly innocent questions to expose the other’s false concepts.

Origin of irony

All the above definitions include the idea of an incongruity or discrepancy, which we often find humorous. It is this difference between what we expect and what happens that is the origin of irony.

Mere difference or coincidence does not provide us with irony. For example, you may be planning to call your friend. As you reach for the phone, it rings, and your friend is calling you. Is that ironic? Probably not in the strictest sense of the word, but we have been using language imprecisely for millennia, and many people expand the idea of irony to include this.

True irony arises from a striking reversal of what is expected or intended, not simply something curious or coincidental.

Let's look at examples of irony from literature through the ages.

Types of irony

The definitions from Webster show that there are various types of irony. Let’s look at them individually.

Verbal Irony 

We deal with verbal irony in our daily lives. The student in the introductory class scene used verbal irony to make a point. Often, this kind of irony slides into sarcasm or satire. In the book of Job, for example, the longsuffering Job finally has had enough of his so-called friends’ pontificating on his situation. He tells them, “Truly then you are the people, and with you wisdom will die!” (Job 12:2) We can hear the irony or sarcasm in Job’s voice even though this is written.

Situational Irony

We encounter situational irony when the actual result of a series of events is the opposite of what we expect. A soldier goes to combat and returns home unscathed. Then, he steps off the curb and breaks his ankle. This is ironic because we expect a war zone to be dangerous and home to be safe. The result is the opposite of our expectations. Or a person fears falling, so reaches for a railing. But the very act of reaching for a secure handhold makes them slip and fall. The very action that was intended to keep them safe causes their injury. That’s ironic, and the form of irony is situational.

Dramatic Irony

In this form of irony the audience knows what the characters do not, and so the characters’ words and actions have the opposite meaning or effect of what is intended. We see this in many horror movies. The protagonist decides to go into the house alone, intending to be safe. The audience screams, “No! Stay out of the house!” because viewers know the killer lurks in the bedroom. Dramatic irony depends on the disconnect between what readers or viewers know and what characters do not.

Tragic irony

Tragic irony is a specific type of dramatic irony that occurs when the audience is aware of a crucial piece of information that the characters are not. This knowledge often leads to a sense of impending doom, as the audience can foresee that the characters' actions or decisions will result in disastrous outcomes. Tragic irony heightens the emotional impact of a story, as it evokes feelings of sympathy, fear, or sadness when characters are unaware of their fate. A classic example of tragic irony is found in Shakespeare's “Romeo and Juliet,” where the audience knows that the lovers' attempts to be together will ultimately lead to their tragic deaths, creating a poignant contrast between the characters' hopeful intentions and the grim reality.

Cosmic irony

Cosmic irony, sometimes referred to as the “irony of fate,” occurs when characters' actions and intentions are thwarted by forces beyond their control, often perceived as the universe, fate, or the gods. This type of irony highlights the contrast between human aspirations and the often harsh or unexpected realities imposed by these larger forces. It is characterized by a sense of tragic inevitability, where characters find themselves in ironic situations that underscore their vulnerability and the unpredictability of life.

Cosmic irony is frequently depicted in literature and mythology, where divine intervention or fate plays a significant role in determining outcomes that defy human desires and expectations. Examples are often found in Greek legends, where gods manipulate human circumstances for their amusement, leading to outcomes that starkly contrast with what the characters hoped or planned for.

Socratic Irony 

This kind of irony gets its name from the philosopher Socrates, who used it as a technique to expose the inadequacies of his opponents’ presuppositions, reasoning, and positions. Socratic irony is a debate technique that writers might use only in specific situations.

Sarcasm

While sarcasm often employs verbal irony, it is not irony. Sarcasm is a mocking taunt intended to disparage and denigrate a person, place, or thing. If someone cuts in line in front of you, and you say, “My! What a kind and polite person,” you are using verbal irony to be sarcastic because you don’t believe those words. On the other hand, when Groucho Marx used to say, “I never forget a face, but in your case, I’ll be glad to make an exception,” he was being sarcastic without irony because he meant what he said.

Satire

Like sarcasm, satire may use irony to make a point, but it is not irony. Satire is political or social critique, and this can come in a variety of forms.

How/why do writers use irony?

Writers often use irony for a variety of purposes. Its most basic function is to portray or highlight an incongruity or a discrepancy between reality and expectations or appearances.

Irony can add humor, even dark humor, to a scene and relieve tension. A character may give a tirade, maligning and disparaging someone else. Their invective makes clear that they hate the other character. A companion says, “Tell us how you really feel. Don’t hold back.” This lightens the mood for other characters and the readers.

In addition to humor, irony can create suspense. A novel with multiple points of view may reveal that the villain has hidden behind an outcropping of rock. The protagonist, trying to escape the villain’s henchmen, heads for that very rock for safety. What will happen when he arrives and recognizes the villain?

Irony can also delineate characters. Verbal irony might show one character’s quick wit and another’s blockheadedness. It might also help to connect characters who understand the irony while excluding those who do not. The author might have one character use verbal irony as a distinguishing trait (much as another might use puns or a favorite phrase).

Irony can also highlight themes in a work. For example, a character may pride herself on her honesty, but her entire career as an undercover police officer is based on making criminals believe she is one of them. Her dilemma helps readers understand who she is, and the dilemma stresses themes of morality. Situational irony can emphasize the unpredictability and randomness of life, thus the need to expect the unexpected. Dramatic irony can bring home the idea that knowledge is always partial.

Used as a plot device, irony can help readers re-evaluate their expectations, knowledge, and understanding of the story. Especially if the irony is part of a plot twist, this will keep readers engaged.

How to identify and analyze irony

As one of the most common rhetorical devices and literary elements, you'll find a number of examples of irony in literature, so how do we identify and analyze it?

You can identify irony by looking for instances where reality contradicts words, attitudes, or actions.

Your characters are scaling a nearly impassable mountain pass during the worst storm any of them have experienced. The leader—wet, cold, and miserable—turns back to the group with a grin and says, “Great day for a stroll!” That’s verbal irony.

The group spots a cave just off the trail and takes refuge from the storm. Now they are laughing and joking because they expect to get out of the storm, light a fire, and dry off. What they don’t know—but the reader does—is that a bear is hibernating in the cave. That’s dramatic irony.

Once the party is inside the cave, the bear awakens and blocks the only exit. It stands on its hind legs and roars. The group expects the bear to attack, and one of the minor characters volunteers to sacrifice himself so the others can escape. Everyone is horrified and tries to dissuade him from certain death.

But when he walks up to the bear, it wraps him in a strong but gentle hug. The bear recognizes the character as the one who saved it from a trap many years ago and is repaying the kindness. This is situational irony because the character and the bear recognize one another.

To analyze the irony in a story, follow these steps:

1. Look for disconnects or incongruities between reality and appearance or perception. (Identifying irony is the first step in analyzing it.)

2. Consider where the contradiction occurs and is expressed. 

• • a character state something in a mocking tone that disagrees with reality? This is verbal irony.
  • Does the character state something seriously without ironic or sarcastic intent? This is a form of situational irony.
  • Does the text’s structure contradict the content or action, and are the characters in the story aware of this incongruity? If they are, this is another form of situational irony.
  • Are the characters clueless about the incongruity, but readers know? Then this is dramatic irony.

3. Determine the points of discrepancy and what they signify or emphasize. In Fahrenheit 451, using the term “firemen” for the people who burn books is ironic because it stresses the disconnect between what we expect a fireman to do (save and preserve) and what they really do and signifies the way that language can be warped to serve a regime’s purposes.

4. Ask how the irony develops the meaning of the text. Here are some questions to consider.

• • What does the irony tell us about the character or characters involved?
  • What does the irony tell us about the narrative and the narrator’s reliability?
  • What does the irony reveal about the setting?
  • How does the irony develop the plot, setting, or characters?
  • What themes does the irony relate to or emphasize?

As a writer, you can consider these items as you think about adding irony to your text.

Examples of irony in literature

As noted above, irony has existed through the ages, and it appears in many notable works.

Job

The biblical book of Job uses dramatic irony. God and Satan debate Job’s faithfulness and God’s character. Satan maintains that Job worships God only because God bribes him. In Job 1:10, Satan claims, “Have you not put a hedge around him and his house and all that he has, on every side? You have blessed the work of his hands, and his possessions have increased in the land.” So, God opens the hedge he has put around Job, allowing Satan access. Job, however, sees the situation differently and complains in Job 3:23, “Why is light given to a man whose way is hidden, whom God has hedged in?”

Oedipus Rex

Sophocles uses irony in Oedipus Rex to show how free will accomplishes predestination and how inescapable fate can be. Prophesied to murder his father and commit incest with his mother, Oedipus is set out on the mountain to die of exposure. However, he is rescued and eventually given to the childless King Polybus of Corinth. Raised believing he is Polybus’s child, Oedipus hears the prophecy and leaves Corinth to prevent the disaster.

When he approaches Thebes, Oedipus quarrels with an old man over whose chariot has the right of way and kills him. Unbeknownst to Oedipus, the old man was his father Laius. After Oedipus answers the riddle of the Sphinx and lifts the Sphinx’s curse, he is made king and given Jocasta as his wife. Only after committing incest does he learn that she is his true mother. Thus, the prophecy is fulfilled. (See the tragic and situational irony there?)

Othello

Shakespeare makes excellent use of irony. In Othello, the audience is privy to the machinations of Iago to destroy his master, Othello. Othello, however, trusts Iago and believes his lies. By using dramatic irony, Shakespeare presents his themes to the audience: the devastating consequences of believing lies, as trust in deceit leads to betrayal, jealousy, and ultimately tragic loss.

“The Gift of the Magi”

In “The Gift of the Magi” by O. Henry, irony drives the plot and highlights the theme of sacrificial love. Della and Jim are newly married and love one another deeply. They are, however, poor, and it’s Christmas. Della’s love for Jim prompts her to cut off and sell her hair so she can buy him a fob for his watch. Jim, on the other hand, pawns his watch so he can buy combs for Della’s knee-length hair. As a result, the Christmas presents they give are useless, but they are invaluable as tokens of the love that Jim and Della have for one another.

The Horse and His Boy

C.S. Lewis gives the reader a moment of situational irony in The Horse and His Boy. Rabadash, a Calormene and heir to the throne, invades Archenland, hoping to establish a base for conquering Narnia. The plan is thwarted when Shasta warns King Lune, and a battle ensues. Rabadash steps onto a ledge and leaps onto his foe with a shout, intending to appear fierce. His plan goes awry when his mail shirt catches on a protruding hook, and the invader hangs on the castle wall with his feet dangling. Rabadash’s story arc deals with the theme of pride and humility and what makes a good leader.

Examples of irony in film

Movies also provide us with examples of irony.

Silent Movie

Mel Brooks’ Silent Movie is a satirical movie about the film industry and an affectionate parody of romantic comedies. It is in the style of early silent films with intertitles. The only spoken dialogue in the movie comes from Marcel Marceau, a famous mime, when he says, “Non!” to a request to be part of the cast. This reversal with a mime having the only speaking part is dramatic irony.

The Wizard of Oz

The Wizard of Oz also provides the audience with dramatic (and structural) irony in that the characters already possess the things they seek: a brain, a heart, courage, and a way home. This speaks to the themes of love, kindness, generosity, and personal development.

Harry Potter

In the Harry Potter series, Ron Weasley believes he drank Felix felicis, Liquid Luck, and this gives him the confidence he needs while playing quidditch. The situational irony is that Harry knows Ron never drank the potion, which would have been illegal; like the characters in The Wizard of Oz, Ron had all he needed inside himself.

Whether you're looking for examples of verbal irony or brushing up on your Socratic irony in preparation for a debate, learning to notice this very common form of literary device can deepen your appreciation of the stories you read and view, and give you ideas for your own stories, as you look for ways to create irony to delight and surprise your audience.

What instances of irony can you identify in literature, drama, or film? Share in the comments.